So what, readers ask us? Nothing special, just pay attention to the year it happened and the fact that these two computers were the first nodes of the network that later became known as ARPANET.
Yes, yes, the same network from which the entire Internet seemed to later grow. The same one that, according to later mythology, was designed in case of a nuclear war in order, they say, to provide stable connection in conditions where direct communication channels are out of order.
In fact, this is truly a myth: ARPANET, although generated by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA, now DARPA), in fact, was not a purely defense project, but rather a private initiative for the development of which ARPA attracted significant funds.
The private (well, almost) person around whom the whole story revolved was computer scientist J.C.R. Licklider, who worked at BBN. In August 1962, he published several papers related to the construction of what he called the "Intergalactic Computer Network." It outlined almost all the basic principles by which today’s Internet operates.
In October 1963, Licklider was assigned to the Pentagon as head of the behavioral sciences and command and control programs at the Advanced Research Projects Agency.
Licklider then talked for a long time with Ivan Sutherland and Bob Taylor - they would later be called the pioneers of the Internet, and that's it - and was able to convince them of the feasibility of implementing his ideas. However, Licklider managed to leave ARPA even before his concept was accepted for development.
ARPA had its own interest in the project computer network, allowing you to use various computers to convey messages: Agency sponsored scientific research in various commercial and academic institutions (including in the field of computer science), and it was interested in these researchers using the computers that ARPA supplied them with in their work.
In addition, such a network could speed up the dissemination of information about new research results and new software.
As Charles Herzfeld, the former head of ARPA, later said, the ARPAnet project was the result of their "frustration with the limited number of large and powerful research computers in the country, and the fact that many researchers who needed access to them could not get it because geographical remoteness." One more word against the popular idea that ARPAnet was created "in case of nuclear war."
However, given that the main profile of ARPA/DARPA is precisely military technologies, and the Cold War was in full swing, military purposes will be attributed to ARPAnet for a very long time - and it is unlikely to be completely unfounded.
Taylor's office had three computer terminals, each connected to different computers, built with ARPA money. The first was the Q-32 system at System Development Corporation, the second was Project Genie at the University of California at Berkeley, and the third was computer system Multics at MIT. Each terminal had its own system of commands; each one had to be logged in, as it is called now, separately...
Laziness, as we know, is the engine of progress, and Taylor came to the logical conclusion that it would be nice to make it possible to establish a connection with any other computer from one terminal.
By the way, almost at the same time, developments were actively underway in the field of packet routing; The first public demonstration occurred on August 5, 1968 in Great Britain, at the National Physical Laboratory.
By mid-1968, Taylor had prepared a complete plan for creating a computer network and, after ARPA approval, requests were sent to 140 potential contractors.
And here it was discovered that no one needed all this at all. The vast majority considered ARPA's proposal crazy, only 12 institutions responded on the merits, and only four of them were subsequently considered by ARPA as primary contractors. By the end of 1968, there were only two left, and the contract eventually went to the aforementioned BBN Technologies company.
A team of seven specialists was quickly able to construct the first working machines: based on the Honeywell DDP 516 computer, the first IMPs (Interface Message Processors), devices reminiscent of modern routers, were produced.
True, not in size:
Each IMP received and forwarded data packets and was connected to a modem connected to leased lines. The host computer was already connected to the IMP itself (via a special serial interface).
A working system with all the hardware and software was constructed in nine months. A symbolic period, isn't it?
And on October 29, the first attempt was made to exchange messages between two computers. The first greeting came out crumpled: only the letters L and O were transmitted from the word LOGIN (by the way, now “lo” is an abbreviation for “Hello”), after which the system fainted. A few hours later they managed to revive her, and the word LOGIN reached the Stanford machine...
This is how ARPAnet began.
By early December 1969, ARPAnet consisted of four nodes, by September 1971 there were already 18 nodes, and growth began exponentially. In 1973, ARPAnet was "unveiled publicly." In October, at the First International Conference on Computers and Communications in Washington, ARPA demonstrated the system's operation by connecting computers located in 40 different locations across the United States. This attracted considerable interest, and in addition to ARPAnet, new networks built on similar principles began to appear.
Perhaps the most significant event that followed was the development by ARPA and Stanford of the transmission control protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP). It is this protocol stack that still underlies the modern Internet.
ARPAnet formally ceased to exist in 1990. On the other hand, the entire Internet of today rests on its basic principles, so to some extent ARPAnet turned out to be immortal.
On January 1, 1983, it became the first network in the world to switch to data packet routing. The routing protocol was used, which to this day is the main data transfer protocol on the Internet. ARPANET ceased to exist in June 1990.
Encyclopedic YouTube
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In 1957, in response to the launch of the Soviet Sputnik Sputnik, the United States created the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). The organization's computer research efforts were led by Dr. J.C.R. Licklider. Licklider comes to ARPA from Bolt, Beranek and Newman, (BBN), Cambridge, MA. This happened in October 1962. Processing, storage, transmission of information - all these processes were then carried out on punched cards, which significantly complicated the entire process of research and calculations. Licklider's initial task was to change the technological process itself.
Throughout the first half of 1969, work continued on the hierarchy of data transfer protocols. The essence of the problem was the division into levels of interaction between parts of computers on the network (hardware, software parts, modem level, etc.). The system also had to support the protocol for remote access and launching programs (telnet) and file transfer (ftp).
At the same time, the Center for Network Measurements was created at UCLA (University of California). It's worth naming the people on that team because most of them go down in history as Internet pioneers: Vinton Cerf; Stephen Crocker; Jon Postel; Robert Braden, UCLA Computer Center Worker; Michael Wingfield, who created the first Internet interface BBN 1822 (Specification for Interaction between a Host Computer and the ARPANET) for the Xerox Data System Sigma7 computer; and David Crocker, Stefan's brother, who developed the standard email.
Time passed, and it was time to start installing the network. The first network nodes were selected based on numerous considerations. It was decided to unite those research centers that were actively involved in the creation of ARPANET, this put an end to all related and spin-off research on networks (at least at that stage in the USA). One of these nodes had to be removed as far as possible in order to test the system in maximum modes. As for hardware, we settled on a 16-bit Honeywell DDP-316 mini-computer with 12 KB of memory. Communication lines with a capacity of 56 Kbps were leased from the telephone company AT&T.
The software consisted of connections IMP - host, IMP - IMP - protocol, IMP-sender - IMP-receiver protocol (IMP-s-IMP-r)
The first test of the technology occurred on October 29, 1969 at 21:00. The network consisted of two terminals, which had to be as far as possible from each other in order to test the system in maximum conditions. The first terminal was located at the University of California, and the second, 600 km away, at Stanford University. The terminals used 16-bit Honeywell DDP-316 minicomputers with 12 kilobytes of RAM. 56 kbps DS-0 digital subscriber lines were leased from AT&T. The software consisted of IMP - host, IMP - IMP - protocol, IMP-sender - IMP-receiver (IMP-s-IMP-r) connections. Test task was that the first operator entered the word “login,” which was a command to log into the system, and the second had to confirm that he saw it on his screen. The first experiment failed - only the letters “l” and “o” were displayed. An hour later the experiment was repeated and was successful.
The computer network was called ARPANET and, as part of the project on December 5, 1969, united the four above-mentioned scientific institutions. All work was funded by the US Department of Defense. Then the ARPANET network began to actively grow and develop - scientists from different fields of science began to use it. By 1971, 15 more terminals were connected. In 1973, the first foreign organizations from Great Britain and Norway were connected to the network, and the network became international. In 1977, the ARPANET consisted of 111 host computers, and already in 1983, out of 4,000, which were located throughout the United States, satellite communications were established with Hawaii and Europe (see geographic map of ARPANET in October 1980). In 1984, the ARPANET network had a serious rival - the US National Science Foundation (NSF) founded an extensive inter-university network NSFNet, which had a much larger throughput at 56 kbit/s than ARPANET. Shipping cost email over the ARPANET network was 50 cents.
On November 2, 1988, about six thousand ARPANET nodes were paralyzed by a network worm. This worm was named the Morris Worm in honor of its creator. The best specialists in the field were invited from all over the country computer security that time to neutralize the consequences of the harmful effects of the virus. Analysis of the disassembled program code did not reveal any logic bombs or any destructive functions.
In 1989, the Internet began to gain momentum, everything more network used for commercial purposes, less and less for scientific ones. In addition, NSFNet was aimed specifically at a scientific audience; this scientific network was faster than ARPANET and had more computers. In the end, ARPA decided to kill their brainchild, which had lived for 22 years, and transfer the computers included in the ARPANET to NSFNnet. This mission, disconnecting computers one by one from the ARPANET, was carried out by Mark Pullen.
Still using the domain name top level".arpa": To find records related to the IP address 1.2.3.4, you need to send a request for the address 4.3.2.1.in-addr.arpa.
The main Internet data transfer protocol, TCP/IP, also originates in the ARPANET, where since 1983 it replaced NCP as the network protocol standard.
Created ARPANET.
And the ARPANET was sightless and empty.
And the spirit of ARPA hovered over the network.
And ARPA said, "Let there be protocol"
And the protocol became.
And ARPA saw that it was good.
Danny Cohen
As they say, every joke has only a grain of joke... In my opinion, such a free use of the text of the Bible by the American Denis Cohen testifies not so much to his lack of reverence for the Bible, but to his desire to elevate the birth of the Internet to the level of a divine manifestation. Compare the creation of the world with the birth of another world - the world of the Internet, in which we spend more and more of our time...
Leaving the topic of escapism - leaving the real world for the Internet world - to psychologists and philosophers, let us recall the stages of development of technology that led to such a global phenomenon as modern Internet. A historical excursion will help us better understand the structure of the Network, the technological principles of its organization and trace to which scientific teams and organizations we primarily owe the formation of such an important phenomenon of modern computer culture as the Internet.
When I turned to studying various literature devoted to the history of the Internet, I was surprised to find that many authors name very different dates for the birth of the Network. Some believe that the Internet began in 1962, others trace its history back to 1969, others call its date of birth 1983, others say 1986, and each one quite convincingly substantiates their point of view. One cannot but agree that each of these dates is marked by important events in the development of the Internet. I have the impression that by tracing all these dates of birth described in the literature, it is possible to get an idea not only of the history, but also of the essence of such a phenomenon as the Internet. I hope that after reading the rest of the story, the reader will agree with me.
The sixties - the birth of ARPA and ARPANET
So, the very first date from which the history of the Internet begins is 1962. On the one hand, this statement seems very bold: after all, in 1962 no one knew what the Internet was, and it was still quite far from the moment when this word was born.
In those distant times, there were no more than 10,000 primitive computers in the world, working on which was not nearly as easy as it is now: computers were much less “friendly” and at the same time cost hundreds of thousands of dollars. AT&T had a monopoly on telephone communications.
However, it was in that distant 1962 that the Advanced Research Projects Agency of the U.S. Department of Defense (ARPA) opened a project that later received the name ARPANET and much later the name Internet.
In 1962, important research began at a number of educational institutions in the United States, most notably at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). It was in 1962 that a young American scientist from MIT, J. S. Licklider, wrote a paper where he expressed the idea of a global network that would provide every inhabitant of the earth with access to data and programs from anywhere in the world. In October of the same year, Licklider became the first head of the ARPA IPTO (ARPA Information Processing Techniques Office). At the same time (also at MIT), another scientist, Leonard Kleinrock, completed his doctorate in the field of communication network theory and received an assistant position at the University of California, UCLA. In the same year, a promising young MIT employee (also a future participant in the ARPANET project) Ivan Sutherland, using the TX-2 machine, created a pioneering interactive graphics program Sketchpad, which had a great influence on the development of computer graphics. Soon these scientists were destined to meet while working on a research project at ARPA. In 1963, Licklider invited Ivan Sutherland to work on the ARPA project, and two years later another scientist joined the group, who later made a major contribution to the creation of the Internet, Bob Taylor. Licklider signed contracts with MIT, UCLA and BBN (a small consulting company Bolt Beranek & Newman) to begin implementing his then-daring ideas. In 1963, an important event occurred: the first universal ASCII standard appeared - a coding scheme that assigns numerical codes to letters, numbers, punctuation marks and some other characters, resulting in the possibility of exchanging information between computers from different manufacturers.
In 1964, almost simultaneously, MIT, the RAND Corporation and the Great Britain National Physical Laboratory (GBNPL) began work on reliable information transfer. The idea of packet switching appeared, the essence of which was that any information transmitted over the network is divided into several parts (packets), which then independently move along different paths (routes) until they reach the destination. Paul Baran, Donald Davis, Leonard Kleinrock conducted parallel research in this area. Paul Baran was one of the first to publish his research in the article “Data Transmission in Networks.” Somewhat later, Kleinrock's dissertation appeared, in which similar ideas were expressed. Networking ideas are evolving against the backdrop of constantly improving computer hardware platforms. In 1964, IBM released the new IBM 360 machine, which established a de facto worldwide standard for the byte - an eight-bit word, which automatically made machines that used 12- and 36-bit words obsolete. IN this development IBM invested $5 billion. In the same year, IBM's online air ticket reservation system debuted, which was named SABRE (Semi-Automatic Business Research Environment). It connected 2,000 terminals in sixty cities via telephone lines.
In 1964, Licklider left ARPA to return to MIT and, in collaboration with Ivan, began developing a time-sharing operating system. Computers are gradually starting to get smaller and become more widespread. In 1965, DEC announced the PDP-8, which could fit on a desktop. It cost $18,000, a fifth of the cost of the IBM/360. The combination of computing power, size and cost allowed the computer to find its way into hundreds of factories, thousands of offices and scientific laboratories. In the same year, based on ARPA funding, Larry Roberts and Thomas Marill created the first regional computer network WAN (Wide-Area Network). They connected TX-2 (MIT) to Q-32 in Santa Monica via a dedicated telephone line. The system confirmed Kleinrock's prediction that packet switching was the most promising model for communication between computers.
A year later, Ivan Sutherland invites Bob Taylor, who previously worked at NASA, to continue work on organizing the network. In the same year, ARPA funded the JOSS (Johnniac Open Shop System) project, which is being developed at the RAND Corporation. The JOSS system provided computing resources to users interactively with remote terminals. The consoles used were a modified electric typewriter (IBM model 868).
In 1966, Taylor succeeded Sutherland as director of ARPA IPTO. His office at IPTO had three terminals that he could alternately connect to different computers via telephone wires. “Why don’t we all talk at the same time?” - Taylor once wondered. This scientist’s question determined an entire scientific direction, which was soon posed to ARPA researchers. The idea seemed so promising to Taylor that he was soon able to arrange a meeting with Charles Herzfeld, who was the head of ARPA at the time. Having outlined the essence of the problem and the prospects that the research promised, Taylor, after 20 minutes of conversation, received consent to allocate a million dollars for the development of the project, the essence of which was to connect all ARPA IPTO clients into one network. Shortly thereafter, Taylor persuaded Larry Roberts to leave MIT to continue work on the networking project at ARPA.
In 1967, another event occurred that played an important role in the development of networking technology: the modem, invented in the early sixties, was significantly improved by John Van Gin of the Stanford Research Institute (SRI). The scientist proposed a receiver that could reliably recognize bits of information against the background of noise interference created by long-distance telephone lines.
At the same time, the English author of the idea of packet switching, Donald Davis, was engaged in theoretical developments at the British National Physical Laboratory. In 1967, Larry Roberts convened a scientific conference in Ann Arbor, Michigan, to which he invited the main developers of the network project. The conference was of great importance - parallel work began to come together. Donald Davis, Paul Baron and Larry Roberts learned about each other's work. The term "ARPANET" was first mentioned during a speech by Larry Roberts at this conference. At the same conference, another prominent scientist, Wesley Clark, first expressed the idea and proposed the term “IMP” - Interface Message Processors, denoting devices for managing network traffic, which later evolved into modern routers.
In 1968, work began on the creation of IMP. ARPA awarded a $1 million contract to a small consulting firm, Bolt Beranek & Newman (BBN), to create four IMPs that would connect the ARPANET. BBN was ahead of its larger competitors due to its simple organizational structure and lack of bureaucratic obstacles. BBN was headed by Frank Hart, a man of extraordinary organizational skills, whose active work allowed the small company to receive such a prestigious contract. Despite the fact that the contract was promising, only one year was allowed for the creation of IMP.
In 1969, BBN successfully fulfilled the terms of the historic contract, which resulted in the launch of the ARPANET network, which covered the entire West Coast of the United States.
Seventies - Telnet, FTP, TCP/IP, USENET
In 1970, the network continued to grow - more were added every month. new node. Two more important events took place that year. First, Denis Ritchie and Kenneth Thompson from BelLabs have completed work on creating an operating room UNIX systems. Secondly, in the same year working group The NWG (Network Working Group), led by Steve Crocker, completed work on the NCP (Network Control Protocol), and a year later completed work on the Telnet terminal emulation protocol and made significant progress on the FTP file transfer protocol.
In 1971, BBN developed a new platform. The so-called TIP devices (Terminal IMP, Terminal Interface Processor) provided the ability to log into remote hosts, thus making the ARPANET accessible more users. 1971 was significant not only for the development of network technologies; In the same year, revolutionary changes took place in the elemental base of computers - the Intel 4004 microprocessor appeared. Returning to network technologies, it should be noted that the achievements were so significant that the time had come for public demonstrations. In 1971, Larry Roberts decided to organize a demonstration of the ARPA network at the International Computer Communications Conference (ICCC), which was to be held in Washington in October 1972. The experiment had to be carried out in real time to show that the network not only existed, but also worked. More than 40 terminals were prepared for the demonstration. AT&T provided the data link.
The elite of the then small network elite gathered to take a look at the work of the network. Donald Davis, the scientist who coined the term “packet switching,” flew specially from England. The demonstration took place over two and a half days and was attended by hundreds of people, including engineers and technicians from the telecommunications and computer industries. The demonstration at ICCC contributed greatly to the spread of packet switching ideas and showed the general public for the first time that sharing resources on the network really. As a result, the ARPANET community began to enjoy respect and recognition new technology and received resources at its disposal. For computer manufacturers, this meant the emergence of a new market.
However, the ARPANET demonstration was not the only event in 1972. At the same time, at least two more events occurred that had a huge impact on the development of computer technology. In 1972, Ray Tomilson (BBN) wrote a program to send email over the ARPANET. He also introduced the designation “user@host” and used the @ symbol, which was later (since 1980) enshrined in the international standard for email addresses. (By the way, the C language appeared in the same year.) In 1973, already 30 institutes were connected to the ARPANET. ARPANET's clients include such private organizations as BBN, Xerox PARC and MITER Corporation, as well as public organizations such as NASA's Ames Research Laboratories, National Bureau of Standards and Air Force Research Facilities.
ARPA is renamed DARPA, with the "D" standing for Defense. Bob Kahn moves from BBN to DARPA for a project to connect the ARPANET to other networks. The very complex work of connecting networks with different interfaces, data rates and packet sizes begins. In essence, this was the work of creating an internetwork protocol. In September 1973, the first publication on the new TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) appeared. In 1974, Larry Roberts moved to BBN, and Licklider moved to DARPA IPTO. By this time, ARPANET daily traffic had already amounted to 3 million packets.
In 1975, the US Department of Energy created its own research center for the development of network technologies. Since 1976, DARPA has funded research at Berkeley, where scientists have been working on modifying UNIX and creating the TCP/IP protocol. TCP/IP has over time become one of the most popular networking protocols and the de facto standard for implementing global network connections due to its openness, scalability, and by providing the same capabilities to global and local networks.
In 1976, the CRAY 1 supercomputer appeared, the computing power of which attracted researchers from different parts of the United States. Many scientists have expressed a desire to obtain remote access to the powerful computing resources of a supercomputer. So the question of the need to organize network access to supercomputer centers. But the development of network technologies was stimulated not only by supercomputers.
It was announced in 1977 apple computer II, and the appearance desktop computers with the potential possibility of communications using a modem connection, gave a new impetus to the development of network technologies and the modem industry. In 1977, DARPA formed an international council on Internet problems, headed by Peter Kirsten from University College (London). By early 1978, the ARPANET experiment was almost over.
In 1979, the USENET service appeared, which was one of the first examples of a client-server organization.
By the end of the seventies, the architecture and protocols of TCP/IP acquired a modern look. By this time, DARPA had become a recognized leader in the development of packet switching networks. Further development of network technologies, including wireless radio networks and satellite channels communications, stimulated DARPA's activity in studying the problems of internetworking and the implementation of Internet principles in the ARPANET.
DARPA has made no secret of its activities in the field of Internet technology development, so various scientific groups have shown interest in the development of global network technology.
The Internet originates from the ARPANET network, but more often the Internet is called the successor of NSFNET - an American network that united NSF (National Science Foundation) scientists, which collaborated, merged with ARPANET, and then absorbed it.
NSFNET appeared only in the mid-eighties, but NSF showed interest in building scientific networks much earlier. In 1979, a meeting of six American universities took place and discussed the possibility of developing the CSNET (Computer Science Research Network). Bob Kahn attended this meeting as a consultant from DARPA, and Kent Curtis as a representative of the NSF (National Science Foundation). Then, in 1979, negotiations did not lead to agreement: NSF considered the project too expensive. However, a year later, NSF returns to this idea, which is supported by an increasing number of universities. Ultimately, NSF agrees to host the CSNET project. $5 million is allocated for the project, and NSF goes down in history as one of the first founders of the Internet. To make it easier for the reader to relate these successes with other achievements in the development of computer technology, let me remind you that in the same year the young company Microsoft proposed an operating system MS-DOS system, and IBM began producing the first personal computer.
Eighties - NSFNET, BBS, WWW
Many experts call the beginning of the Internet the early 80s. At this time, DARPA initiated the transition of machines connected to its research networks to use the TCP/IP stack. In 1981, the IWG (Internet Working Group) at DARPA publishes a document that talks about a complete transition from the NCP (Network Control Protocol) to the TCP/IP protocol, which has been developed since 1974. ARPANET becomes the backbone of the Internet and is actively used for numerous experiments with TCP/IP.
DARPA organized a series of scientific workshops during which scientists exchanged new ideas and discussed the results of experiments. A special committee was created to coordinate and guide the development of Internet protocols and architecture, called ICCB (Internet Control and Configuration Board); this committee existed and worked regularly until 1983.
The final transition to Internet technology occurred in January 1983: this year the TCP/IP protocol was adopted by the US Department of Defense, and the ARPANET network was divided into two independent parts. One of them (intended for scientific purposes) retained the name ARPANET, and the second, larger-scale MILNET network was transferred to the military department.
To encourage the use of new protocols in educational institutions, DARPA has made TCP/IP implementations widely available to the university community. At this time, many researchers were using a version of the University of Berkeley (California) Unix operating system called BSD Unix (from Berkeley Software Distribution.)
Thanks to DARPA's sponsorship of BBN and the University of Berkeley to implement TCP/IP protocols for use with the popular Unix operating system, more than 90% of university computer departments adopted the new networking technology, and the BSD version became the de facto standard for implementations of the protocol stack. TCP/IP. Several versions of BSD were released, each adding new features to TCP/IP, including 4.2BSD (1983), 4.3BSD (1986); 4.3BSD Tahoe (1988); 4.3BSD Reno (1990); 4.4BSD (1993).
Since 1985, NSF has implemented a networking program around its supercomputing centers. And in 1986, the creation of a core network (56 Kbps) between NSF supercomputer centers led to the emergence of a number of regional networks, such as JVNCNET, NYSERNET, SURANET, SDSCNET, BARRNET and others. This is how the NSFNET backbone network was born, which eventually united all these scientific centers and connected them to the ARPANET. Thus, NSFNET connected five supercomputing centers and opened access to powerful computing resources to a wide range of researchers. At one time, ARPANET failed to cope with this task due to bureaucratic problems, which led to the emergence of NSFNET. A large number of universities and research centers, including those outside the United States, have expressed a desire to connect to this network. To reduce fees for using long-distance communication lines, it was decided to develop a system of regional networks that unites computers within a certain region and has connections to similar networks nearby. With this configuration, all computers are equal and have chain communication through neighboring computers both with each other and with NSF supercomputers. Thus, starting from 1986, we can talk about the formation of the global computer network Internet.
In 1988, the Internet becomes international network- Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Norway and Sweden join it. Also in 1988, the BBS (Bulletin Board System) service appeared on the Internet.
In January 1989, the network had 80,000 nodes; in November, Austria, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand and the UK joined the Internet - the number of nodes in the network increased to 160,000. In the same year, FDDI (Fiber Distributed Interface) technology appeared - a distributed data transfer interface via fiber optic channels.
If the Internet is a collective invention, then the idea of hypertext and WWW is associated with the name of a specific person. In 1989, Berners-Lee came up with the idea of hypertext, which inspired the creation of the World Wide Web. While working as a technical consultant at the European Particle Physics Laboratory in Geneva, Berners-Lee wrote the Eniquire program, which became the prototype for the future WWW. Also in 1989, Berners-Lee began work on the global World Wide Web project, and just two years later (in 1991) the first WWW objects were placed on the Internet. In the period from 1991 to 1993, the scientist was engaged in improving WWW specifications. In 1994, Berners-Lee went to work at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the computer science laboratory, where he served as director of the WWW Consortium, which coordinates the efforts of more than a hundred corporations aimed at improving World Wide Web technologies.
ARPANET (from the English Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) is a computer network created in 1969 in the USA by the US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and which was the prototype of the Internet. On January 1, 1983, it became the first network in the world to switch to data packet routing. TCP/IP was used as the routing protocol, which to this day is the main protocol for data transfer on the Internet. ARPANET ceased to exist in June 1990.
INTERNET T is a worldwide system of interconnected computer networks for storing and transmitting information. Often referred to as World Wide Web and the Global Network, as well as simply the Network. "Network of Networks".
Methods of connecting to the Internet 1) through an analog modem, using a telephone line - the speed is low, the connection is unreliable, the line is busy 2) through a digital modem, using a telephone line ( ADSL technology etc.) – high speed, free telephone line 3) via a local network connected to the router 4) via mobile phone 5) through satellite communications
Internet connection provider modem satellite or fiber optic communication channel with an Internet server router hub ADSL modem dedicated line telephone exchange frequency divider (splitter) ADSL modem dial-up ADSL modem
ADSL - A modem is equipment that allows a computer to connect to the Internet via a telephone line. You are in local network, the network is connected to a modem, the modem calls the provider’s server and establishes a connection. ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) is a modem technology in which the available channel bandwidth is distributed asymmetrically between outgoing and incoming traffic. http://lyceum. nstu. ru/grant/internet 2. htm
ADSL FILTER (JARG. SPLITTER FROM ENGLISH. SPLIT - DIVIDE) - a combined electric filter for frequency division channels. It is used in telecommunications networks when using a common physical medium (subscriber line) by various means of communication, for example, an analog telephone and an ADSL modem.
NETWORK HUB OR HUB (FROM ENGLISH HUB - CENTER) - a device for connecting computers into Ethernet network using cable infrastructure like twisted pair. Currently being replaced by network switches.
Firewall - hardware - software tool (firewall), which prevents unauthorized access to the protected network.
TCP/IP PROTOCOLS IP ADDRESS A protocol is a special set of rules that ensures the exchange of information both between individual devices and processes, and between entire networks. TCP – Transmission Control Protocol. Responsible for HOW information will flow through the network. IP – Internet Protocol. Responsible for WHERE information will be sent over the network. It looks like a set of combinations of numbers: 11.222.31.26, numbers are used from 0 to 255.
An IP address is a unique numeric address of a computer on a network, which is 32 bits long and written in four parts of 8 bits each.
IP addresses 0. . 255 193. 162. 230. 115 w. x. y. z IP address: network number + computer number in the network w Network number Computer number a Number of networks Number of computers A 1. . 126 w x. y. z 126 16777214 B 128 -191 w. x y. z 16384 65534 C 192 -223 w. x. y z 2097151 254 Network Class Classes D and E are used for service purposes.
Domain addresses A domain is a group of computers united according to some characteristic. www. qqq. microsoft. ru 4th level domain 3rd level domain 2nd level domain 1st level domain 1st level domains ( domain zones) Type of organization. com commercial organizations Country. ru Russia. edu education. ua Ukraine. gov US government. by Belarus. mil US military departments. uk UK. org, . net different organizations. info information sites. biz business. it Italy. jp Japan. cn China
Top-level domains are of two types: geographical (two-letter) - each country has a two-letter code; administrative (three-letter) – allows you to determine the profile of the organization, the owner of the domain.
Each domain name consists of several words separated by periods. Domain names are built on a hierarchical principle. The rightmost one is the top-level domain. Next, the domain name is decrypted from right to left. Examples of domain names: microsoft. com - commercial organization Microsoft Corporation · www. gov. ru – official website of the Russian government · podrobnosti. ua – newspaper “Podrobnosti”, Ukraine
Conversion DNS addresses(Domain Name Service) – a domain name service that converts a domain address to an IP address. www. google. com q query to the DNS server to obtain the IP address of the website www. google. com q waiting for a response q requesting a Web page using the received IP address 66. 102. 9. 47 DNS server 193. 124. 85. 210
Internet document address URL (Uniform Resource Locator) – the universal address of a document on the Internet. http://www. Vasya. ru / images/new/ qq. jpg protocol site address http: // www. Vasya. ru directory (folder) file name home page website: index. html, index. htm ftp://files. Vasya. ru / pub / download / qq. zip file on an FTP server
Internet service protocols q HTTP (Hyper. Text Transfer Protocol) – WWW service q FTP (File Transfer Protocol) – FTP service q SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) – sending email messages q POP 3 (Post Office Protocol) – receiving email messages email (password required) HTTP FTP SMTP POP 3 TCP/IP ! All service protocols are based on TCP/IP!
Internet capabilities (services) q WWW (World Wide Web) - hypertext documents Hypertext is text in which each word or phrase can be an active link to another document Hypermedia - documents with active links containing text, pictures, sound, video . q Electronic mail (e-mail) q FTP (file sharing) q Forums (newsgroups, conferences, newsgroups) q News subscription q Search engines q Chats (chat – chat) q Personal communication in real time § ICQ (I Seek You) – conversation 1-1, in a group, file sharing q Internet phone § Skype + speakers + microphone
WHAT IS WWW? World Wide Web - "World Wide Web" - distributed information system multimedia, which is an integral part of the Internet.
ru mailbox mail server commercial “at” “dog” (Russia) “kitty” (Poland) “rose” (Turkey) 16th century: weight 10 kg, volume 15 l 1972 R. Tomlison com mailbox mail server
Internet telephone Skype (www. skype. com, www. skype. ru) real-time conversation Skype Free § § TELEPHONE STATION Calls Skype - Skype File transfer Group and individual chats Teleconferences (up to 9 people) For a fee § Calls to landlines and mobile phones § Receiving calls from regular phones in Skype § Sending and receiving voice messages and SMS
Internet via mobile phone WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) downloading toys, music, weather only telecom operator sites, weather sites, email, online stores 1) high cost (old technologies) 2) few GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) or EDGE capabilities (Enhanced Data for Global Evolution) built-in browser (Opera Mini - page compression) Java language support built-in e-mail program can be used instead of a modem for a computer Smartphones: also play music, video, take photos and videos operating system, office programs
Search engines Indexes are robotic programs that constantly scan the Internet and populate databases. they give out a lot of links 1) some links do not correspond to the topic 2) it is difficult to select the right www. google. com, www. yandex. ru, www. rambler. Common crawl en Catalogs are databases that are filled in manually by human experts (guides). links correspond to catalog headings, fewer links www. yahoo. com, www. google. com, list. mail. ru, www. yandex. ru Hybrid systems – index + catalogue.
HISTORY OF THE INTERNET Joseph Licklider Vincent Surf, “Father of the Internet” Timothy Berners-Lee Homework: How did each of these people influence the creation of the Internet?
kolm A.Kryvenia & Nika
Even my three-year-old niece knows the word “Internet” and that you can “hang” on it. Many people know that the Internet was born from some kind of military network. Some people know the name of this network. Few people know the names of its inventors. Therefore, here I would like to highlight some milestones of the “military Internet” and the people who stood behind it. In a word, this story is about ARPA (*see dossier at the end of the article), an organization that is commonly called the godfather of the modern Internet.
Instead of an epigraph
"You shouldn't think that networks connect computers. Rather, networks connect people through computers. The great success of the Internet is not in physically connecting computers, but in connecting people. Technically, e-mail is a simple solution, but it became a landmark invention because it gave people a new way communication. We created the Internet with great growth potential, and its current growth is a challenge to all of us." David Clark.
Here's what I came across in the Internet History section of www.computerhistory.org:In the beginning there was ARPA. ARPA created the ARPANET.
And ARPANET was without forms and shell.
And there was deep darkness everywhere.
And the spirit of ARPA entered the network, and ARPA said, “Let there be protocol,” and there was protocol. And ARPA saw that it was good.
And ARPA said, “Let there be many protocols,” and so it was. And ARPA saw that it was good.
And ARPA said: “Let there be many networks” - and so it became. And ARPA saw that it was good.
Danny CohenI decided to use these words as the basis for a story about ARPA. So.
In the beginning there was ARPA
In 1958, in response to the launch of the Soviet satellite, the United States created ARPA. The organization's computer research efforts were led by Dr. J.C.R. Licklider*. Licklider comes to ARPA from Bolt, Beranek and Newman, (BBN*), Cambridge, MA. This happened in October 1962. Processing, storage, transmission of information - all these processes were then carried out on punched cards, which significantly complicated the entire process of research and calculations. After all, ARPA worked (and still works) on a contract basis: contracts are concluded to perform some piece of work with non-governmental organizations or universities that are located in different states, on different coasts. Therefore, Licklider's initial task was to change the technological process itself.The Information Processing Techniques Office (IPT or IPTO) was created under ARPA.
ARPA created ARPANET
In 1963, Licklider began working closely with Larry Roberts*, who was then working at Lincoln Laboratory on the TX-2 project and was a recognized expert in the field of computer graphics. Larry ended up at ARPA.Licklider also actively contacted MIT *, UCLA * and BBN, eventually winning them over to his vision of computer networks.
The ARPA III-21 project says about Licklider that "he was the first to sense the spirit of the unification of researchers around the first systems using time-sharing information, Licklider made it easier to understand the processes of network associations."
During the discussions, it was decided to organize a data transmission network based on the architecture proposed by Paul Baran * in the 60s. This was a network architecture with distributed parameters (Figure 1, position C). Its advantages were outlined by Baran in his work “Introduction to a Distributed Switching System”, August 1964. The main advantage - a high degree of security in the event of damage to individual parts of the network - is well illustrated in Figure 1.
And ARPANET was without forms and shell. And there was deep darkness everywhere
Licklider's merit lay, first of all, in the fact that he initially formulated the concept of the network as a means of communication between people through the transfer of information. Now it seems elementary, but then it was necessary to formulate something that does not yet exist and has never existed. Therefore, Larry Roberts argues that it was Licklider's vision of the network and his knowledge of "how to do" that helped create the ARPANET, and then all other descendant networks.Licklider was a powerful business executive. He worked according to the scheme: there is such and such a task, such and such means are needed to implement it. But not the other way around. As a result, the Ministry of Defense reproached him with the fact that the project required technical means that neither the Ministry nor the industry could use. at the moment don't have it. To which Licklider said that the computer industry will respond to their requests, because it has no options: advanced developments are underway at ARPA, and they are the future.
“The computer is being transformed from an arithmetic processor into a means of communication. The computer industry (manufacturing companies, universities) looks at the computer as an arithmetic machine.
This is reflected in their projects; this is at the core of their developments. We must change this idea - and then the purpose of the computer will change." Licklider understood his historical mission, he understood that by changing the idea of the computer, we would open up its new capabilities. Licklider did not create ARPANET for immediate benefit, not even for the specific task of connecting units Ministry, but as a promising technology aimed at the future. It is very interesting that working with networks is still (and it’s 2001) commercially profitable and popular, hundreds of companies are working in the field of developing equipment and software for networks.
Bob Taylor * received $1 million in funding for the ARPA Experimental Network project in 1966 and, persuaded by Roberts, went to work for ARPA on this project.
And the spirit of ARPA entered the network and ARPA said: "Let there be protocol" - and there was protocol
In the spring of 1967, Michigan City University held its annual meeting of "principle researchers." Its goal was to coordinate further steps in the development of networks. In addition to ARPA, the meeting included organizations involved in the process of creating an "intergalactic network" (Licklider's original formulation for the future network). The already mentioned Paul Baran and Thomas Marill * took an active part in the discussion.From the ARPA III-26 project:
“At the meeting, it was agreed that the work should be aimed at building a data transmission network connecting any two computers. Types of communication and types of data for connections were agreed upon.
The protocol must support the transmission of individual digits and blocks, error checking and relaying, and user and computer identification. Frank Westervelt (Michigan City University) was selected to be responsible for maintaining network documentation. A “Liaison Group” was selected from the organizations present and a schedule of its meetings was assigned.”At this meeting, ARPA actually issued a call for organizations that could solve two issues (ARPA Project II-8):
1. Design a basic data network consisting of telephone lines and switching nodes whose reliability, latency characteristics, capacity and cost would facilitate the distribution of resources in the network.
2. Understand and implement the protocols and procedures within the operating systems of each connected computer to enable the addition of a new subnet to an existing one.It was then agreed to meet in early October 1967 to discuss the Interface Message Processor (IMP) protocol and specification. In March 1968, a multi-page work was written under the authorship of Elmer Shapiro, "Functional Description of IMP", then Glenn Culler wrote the second edition of the specification. Roberts and Barry Wessler* used the civilian work to write the final specification that formed the basis of the first protocol for the ARPANET.
From the ARPA III-32 project:
"Protocols and network designs were finally discussed at a meeting in June 1968. After which ARPANET, as an official project, began to exist." The program, called Computer Network Resource Allocation, was adopted on June 3, 1968, and approved by the Director of ARPA on June 21.And ARPA saw that it was good
Project III-35 states that the Program was "an interesting document. The stated goals of the program were to develop expertise in computer connections, improve and increase the performance of computer systems through resource sharing. It was noted that ARPA-supported research centers provided a unique debugging system (test bed) for experiments with computer networks. The research carried out directly benefited the centers and served as valuable research results in the military field. ARPA's need for information was satisfied, a network sketch was completed and a specification was drawn up." The Defense Supply Corps acted as ARPA's agent for the acquisition of appropriate ARPANET equipment. 51 companies were interested in supplying equipment. In the end, we decided to go with BBN. This happened in December 1968. Here the beginning of another action called “Montage”, about which next time.Dossier
DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, formerly ARPA) - The US Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency was created on February 7, 1958 by Directive 5105.15 to "direct and carry out complex research projects" in response to the Soviet launch of the first satellite. Reports directly to the US Secretary of Defense, coordinates work with the Military Research Establishment (R&D). DARPA Core - Program Management. DARPA's staff changes every 3-5 years, resulting in a fresh perspective on today's challenges. DARPA's annual budget is $2 billion. Personnel is 240 people, of which 140 are technical. Projects in a variety of areas, execution time up to 5 years, financing from one to hundreds of millions of dollars. R&D laboratories of two universities and a dozen non-governmental organizations are used as laboratory bases. Due to its small size, DARPA remains a unique and mobile link in the chain of research structures of the US government. www.arpa.mil.BBN (Bolt Beranek and Newman) is an engineering consulting firm based in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1948 by electrical engineer Richard Bolt and Leo Baranek, architect and physicist. Later they were joined by another architect, Robert Newman. The company was engaged acoustic systems. After Licklider's arrival in 1957, she refocused on the computer field. BBN won the tender in 1968 to build the IMP, develop and launch the ARPANET. www.bbn.com.
University of California (University of California, Los Angeles; UCLA). One of the largest universities in the United States, it is known for a number of works recognized as the best in their fields in the world. Has its own Nobel laureates. Currently, 37 thousand students study at UCLA and its schools. www.ucla.edu.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). A major American institute. More than 900 faculties. Constantly participates in interdisciplinary programs and has many laboratories conducting serious scientific research. MIT students wrote the first interactive computer in 1962 computer game SpaceWar! Lincoln Laboratory was actively involved in the development of networking theory. www.mit.edu.
Baran, Paul. One of the inventors of packet switching. Author of fundamental works on packet switching and building data networks in the early 60s for the RAND Corporation.
Wessler, Barry. IPTO Program Director, appointed following the departure of Larry Roberts in 1969.
Licklider, Joseph Carl Robnett. Outstanding psychologist and psychoacoustician, scientist. Wrote the famous work “Symbiosis of Computer and Man”, 1960, predetermining transformations in computer science related to work in networks. He was invited to ARPA in 1962, where he first headed the ARPA Behavioral Sciences Division and then the Office of Information Processing Methods. Worked at MIT and Harvard, did research at Lincoln Laboratory and BBN; pioneered the transmission of time-separated information streams and interactive computing systems. Died in 1990.
Marill, Thomas (Marill, Tom). Psychologist, Licklider's student involvement in the development of time-shared data transmission systems. In 1965, together with Larry Roberts, he conducted network experiments at Lincoln Laboratory. Together with Roberts he produced the first network connection: The TX-2 laboratory computer was connected to the Q-32 machine in Santa Monica using a telephone line. The connection demonstrated the ineffectiveness of dial-up connections for global networks. In those years, he began working at the famous Computer Corporation of America (CCA).
Roberts, Larry. Engineer, director and principal architect of the experimental ARPA network; often referred to as the "father of ARPANET". Developer and author of the network specification, oversaw all work on the ARPA project from 1966 to 1973; became director of ARPA's Office of Information Processing Techniques in 1969. Prior to this, he conducted experiments with TX-2 networks with Tom Marill at Lincoln Laboratory. Posted in 1973 software to the first email manager (called RD), left ARPA in 1973 to take over TELENET.
Taylor, Bob (Taylor, Bob). Director of IPTO from 1966 to 1969 Author of the idea of building an experimental computer network ARPA. He taught mathematics and psychoacoustics at the University of Texas in the 50s. Before joining ARPA, he worked as a research administrator at NASA and then at Lincoln Laboratory.
After leaving ARPA, he founded the Xerox Computer Research Laboratory in Palo Alto, creator digital equipment for Systems Research Center Corporation.
To be continued
In the photo are the pioneers of the Internet: 1 Licklider; 2 Larry Roberts; 3 Paul Baran; 4 Bob Taylor.
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