Links between Web pages.

Live broadcast of the lecture "How to structure the site correctly", School of Webmasters

A meta tag that defines a link between two different Web pages, or between a Web page and another file, is used very rarely and almost always only by special programs. Conventional Web browsers use only one form of it, which is used to bind an external style sheet to a page. (See Chapter 10 for style sheets.) Other forms of this meta tag have not seen widespread use.

However, let's still consider this meta tag. It's up to you to decide whether to use it or not.

So, to place a link meta tag on a page, select the Link item from the Head Tags submenu of the Insert menu. You can also click the Link button (Fig. 14.14) located on the Head tab of the object panel. The Link dialog box shown in Fig. 14.15.

Rice. 14.14. Link button of the object panel.

Rice. 14.15. Link dialog.

The address of the Web page (or other file, such as a style sheet) to which the current page is linked is entered in the Href input field. You can also click the Browse button and select the desired file in the Select File dialog box.

The ID and Title input fields only need to be filled in if you are going to control this meta tag from a Web script. Internet Explorer allows you to do this. The first of these input fields specifies a unique identifier that can be used to access the meta tag from within the script. The second specifies an optional name for this meta tag.

Every HTML tag must support the TITLE attribute, which specifies the title of the tag. This title is displayed when the user moves the mouse cursor over the corresponding element on the page. However, few people fill in this attribute for every tag. And this attribute is fully supported only by Internet Explorer.

The type of connection to be established is specified using the Rel and Rev input fields. The first of these specifies what the file whose Internet address is specified in entry field Href, is for the current page (for example, a style sheet). The second is what the current page is for that file (for example, the table of contents page). All possible values ​​that can be entered in these input fields are listed in Table. 14.2.

Table 14.2. Possible values ​​of input fields Pel and Rev.

Page with a dictionary of special terms.

Help page.

Next page in sequence.

Previous page in sequence.

The first page in the sequence.

You can also enter multiple values ​​in the Rel or Rev input field, separating them with spaces. After entering all the data, click the OK button to create the meta tag, or the Cancel button to cancel it. Ready link meta tag is displayed in the title bar with the icon shown in fig. 14.14, i.e. the same as the Link button of the object panel.

If you select the link meta tag in the title bar, the property editor will look like the one shown in Fig. 14.16. In it you can change the address value of the linked file in entry field Href, set a new link type in the Rel and Rev input fields and change the ID and Title parameters.

Rice. 14.16. Property editor with link-meta-tag selected.

How can the above be used? link meta tag? For example, you can ask connection between separate pages containing parts of a large document and its table of contents. In this case, a separate page will be marked as chapter or section (or even Subsection), and the table of contents -contents or index. You can also mark the first page of the document as Start, the next page as Next, etc.

The link job meta tag is created using the tag , but not<МЕТА>.

Abstracts

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Every day we come across in the comments, in live communication with the fact that people complain about their operator in situations to which the latter has nothing to do, and the fault for the connection lies with the device or circumstances. As a rule, such conversations reveal the main problem - a lack of understanding of how it all works and works. For a decade and a half, we had many articles that talked about this, showed it with examples, but the generation of those who missed them has already grown up. Therefore, the section “Likbez” appears, in which we will consider the basic principles of how everything really works. Discussing the title for the rubric, I unexpectedly found out that many have forgotten the decoding of this word - "liquidation of illiteracy."

This article has two authors - Sergey Potresov, since no one but him can clearly explain how the connection works, and Eldar Murtazin, my role is to dilute the text with examples and thoughts on the topic. I hope that you will like the materials of this section and together we will defeat illiteracy in the field of communications. The last, but not least, caveat - we do not write a textbook for signalmen, but tell plain language about what cellular networks are and how they work. This is an entry-level material in order to understand how it all works and, if you wish, to study the issue in more detail. Therefore, certain simplifications are possible in such articles, for which I apologize in advance.

How communication is organized

cellular therefore it is called cellular, because at the heart of any network are cells (cells), each cell is a piece of territory that is covered (served) by a base station. The shape and size of cells depend on many factors, including radiation power base station, standard, operating frequencies, antenna directions, etc. Honeycombs necessarily overlap each other, this is necessary in order to mobile device(terminal) did not lose connection when moving from one cell to another. This is especially important for the owner. cell phone who talks while driving.

In the conditions of urban development, it is impossible to divide the city map into squares and place base stations at equal distances in order to achieve high-quality coverage. The number of storeys of buildings, obstacles in the form of monuments, the ability to install base stations in one place or another begin to play a role. It is not for nothing that our cities were called the stone jungle, planning radio networks in them is another task. Therefore, all operators are trying to reserve additional capacity in large cities, to create overlapping zones for base stations. And there is another reason for this.

For effective work One coverage network is not enough, base stations must serve many users at the same time. And in cities there are a lot of people talking and using mobile Internet at the same time. The frequency bands on which voice and data are transmitted are a limited and extremely valuable resource; operators around the world pay a lot of money to the state for their licensing. And not only money. For example, in Russia, the Ministry of Communications lays down in the license the obligations of the operator to provide communications not only to cities that are profitable for cell phones, but also to sparsely populated areas where building base stations is obviously a loss-making business. And in some places, these base stations will never generate income at all, the equipment will have to be changed to a more modern one before the installed one has time to pay off.

As you can see, the operators also have a social burden on the part of the state. Nothing is free, and therefore the cost of installing base stations and building networks in small cities is offset by services in large ones. This is how this business works all over the world, and Russia is no exception. An important difference in only one, Russian networks mobile communications- one of the most modern, and in terms of the quality and coverage of networks, our country comes out on top in the world, if we also remember about its territory.

Standard is a delicate matter

In Russia, as in other countries, a whole zoo of different standards operates simultaneously. This is necessary, first of all, to maintain the performance of all mobile terminals, including phones that only work in GSM, and even ancient handsets that only work in one of the two GSM bands. Of the main standards (service TETRA and other exotics do not count), we have GSM in the 900 and 1800 MHz bands, UMTS (3G) networks in the 900 and 2100 MHz bands, LTE (4G) of two varieties (FDD and TDD) in several frequency bands and CDMA (Skylink) in the 450 MHz band. As the prevalence of terminals with 3G and 4G support grows, operators begin to “take away” some of the bands from their GSM networks and launch LTE (4G) on these bands. This is rational and necessary, since modern 3G and LTE (4G) standards allow serving many more subscribers on the same frequency band. And the advantage of the LTE standard is also that it allows you to combine and share several frequency bands in different ranges. This is LTE Advanced (LTE-A) with frequency aggregation. This "frequency sandwich" dramatically increases efficiency and allows for fantastic data transfer rates. For example, in the Moscow MegaFon network, it is quite possible to see more than 200 Mbps. Unfortunately, supporting LTE-A technology there are still relatively few smartphones and routers, but this is a matter of time. It is a mistake to believe that such modern and high-speed networks are available only in Moscow; MegaFon already has LTE-A networks in fifteen cities of Russia.

The LTE standard is, of course, objectively better than UMTS and, moreover, better than GSM. Allows you to serve many more subscribers on the same frequencies and provides completely different data transfer rates. But "happiness" is not only in the standard itself, but also in the frequency range used. As a general rule, the lower the frequency, the better the penetration of the signal through the walls of buildings and the greater the "range" of base stations and terminals. Skylink has the lowest frequency in Russia (450 MHz), thanks to which a small number of base stations can “cover” vast territories, the Skylink signal is often present in such a wilderness where none of the other operators have reached yet. The trouble is that the Skylink standard (CDMA 450) supports only a few Chinese phones and smartphones. In the foreseeable future, it is possible to switch to LTE in this range and the appearance of support for this range in most modern smartphones. Everything is very complex and interconnected.

The GSM 900 standard is good for covering large areas and "breaking through" the walls of buildings, GSM 1800 is good for serving a large number of subscribers. But GSM 1800 requires four times as many base stations for the same coverage. Similarly with LTE (4G): the 800 MHz band is well suited for "forests and swamps", the 2600 MHz band provides the necessary network capacity in cities. Now under LTE, the 1800 MHz band is increasingly being used (frequency bands “selected” from GSM networks). It's also a matter of terminal compatibility. For example, iPhones imported from the US may work in LTE 800 MHz (Band 20), but not support Band 7 (2600 MHz). Our operators have relatively few frequencies in Band 20, and networks in this range are not being developed as actively, and owners of such iPhones complain about low speed and a “bad operator”. With LTE in the 1800 MHz band, not everything is going smoothly either: your favorite LTE router in the 1800 band may not work, and again the “bad operator” will be to blame.

Manufacturers of smartphones, tablets and other electronics often tailor their devices to specific markets. This is not only in the fact that they translate the instruction, as it is seen from the outside. With good localization, they also work with local operators. Access points are registered in such devices, work with a huge zoo of SIM cards that operators have has been checked, correct settings for the network in engineering menu phone. The same model can be configured so that its local version will cling to the network longer and more stable than an analog brought from Europe or the USA. The question is in the settings that are made for Russia, and how universal or specific they are. It also directly affects the operating time of your device, the speed of registration on the network.

"Bad" and "good" operators - problem solving

The most popular sport on the net is to prove something to a stranger, for example, that their operator is bad, but you made the right choice. This problem has no solution because there are too many variables in it. How do people rate the quality of an operator? Let me share a secret that is not.

Most people look at how an operator works at two points - at their home and at work. These are two places where a person spends most of his life, which means that communication is most important in them. Visiting a cafe or restaurant bad reception, will not affect the perception of the operator in any way, usually people do not even notice that they did not get through. With the spread of mobile Internet, the number of blind spots is determined by the presence of a signal, the ability to view pages, or even data transfer speed, when it can vary from EDGE to 4G.

Communication at all times was of a probabilistic nature, even when it was wired. Not a single operator in the world could ensure the simultaneous connection of all its subscribers, it was assumed that the probability of such a situation tends to zero. Therefore, everyone calculated the network capacity based on peak loads and made a small, accurately calculated capacity margin, assuming that the network would grow. With the advent of mobile communications, operators faced a difficult task, they needed to accurately calculate peak loads, and also make their service competitive, not overdo it and not invest (more precisely, dig in or hang on poles, as you like) too much money.

Let's take a look at the statistics from Roskomnadzor, which takes into account the number of base stations in all Russian operators. Data for 2015 appeared at the end of March 2016, these are the most recent figures at the time of publication of the article.

Is it possible to conclude from the number of base stations which operator is better? If we approach the issue head-on, simplify the situation, then the operator that has the largest number of stations should win. Indeed, in this case, it can provide communication in more places, with the best quality. If we had only one communication standard, for example, 2G, such reasoning would be correct. But at the same time we have 2G for voice, 3G / 4G and their intermediate versions for data transmission, as well as voice (3G, and Voice over LTE also appears). In theory, the advantage is with the operator that has a balanced number of both 2G stations that provide good voice and SMS coverage, and 3G / 4G stations.

Let's digress for a moment and think about traffic jams. Very often people look into the navigator, which writes that the roads are a nightmare and traffic jams are ten points. Darkness! You can forget about the car and change to public transport. But is it always like this? Often, traffic jams are not so terrible on your route, and you can get to your destination in a matter of minutes. This example does a good job of explaining that even a "bad" operator can work at the two points you need and do it well. What creates a deceptive impression that everything is just as good with him in other parts of the city or country.

When we talk about the quality of communication, then any operator at certain points can be either very good or very bad. It is always a probability that is difficult to predict. You can choose places so that even the operator with the best coverage will show deplorable results. I have a friend who is not lucky enough to live, work and play in places where the best operator in my opinion has such flaws in coverage. This is an almost unbelievable situation, a coincidence.

When choosing an operator, it is extremely important to look at what services it offers. Not just hearing about 4G, 4G+ or other marketing terms, but understanding what speeds are achievable in practice and what are the pitfalls. How well the voice communication works. It should also be understood that the big three and Tele2 that joined them have comparable tariff offers, during the year you will not gain anything by switching from one operator to another. Moreover, the competition is so high that for the year your expenses with the same profile of using communication services will most likely be comparable. In most situations, the differences are imaginary, tied to the marketing of a particular operator.

If the prices plus or minus are the same, then how to choose an operator? I will share my approach, perhaps it will seem rational to you and you will call it Murtazin's choice. I choose and chose an operator based on the number of base stations and the number of modern stations that are connected by high-speed optics. I am constantly moving around the country, it is important for me to get a comparable quality of connection at every point, or, more precisely, to have a high probability of getting such a connection. In my informal rating, MegaFon has always been the leader, since investments in the network since 2008 have been maximum, the company has approached the theoretical maximum of base stations for all territories in Russia, it makes no sense to develop the network at the same pace, it is already necessary to carry out even more fine tuning networks. But the company continues to expand the network and invests in it, actively and first develops stations of new generations. The second place is traditionally occupied by MTS, which in 2015 made a breakthrough and built a lot of base stations across the country in order to come out on top in terms of their number. But in addition to the stations themselves, it is necessary to provide them with fiber optics, a backbone and control network, and here in MTS, not everything is so smooth yet.

The conditional second group is Beeline and Tele2, and the second is catching up with the first, and very aggressively. The quality and quantity of BS in these companies is very different from the first two players. And therefore, when they tell me that they are no worse than MegaFon or MTS, I always grin. The probability of this is not confirmed by numbers, while these are players of a different level.

Of course, you may have a completely different approach and you do not like this or that operator, you think that another company is closer to you. This is a matter of taste, and it has always been and is. But then it is not necessary to say that this is confirmed by the quality of the network and its operation. This is wrong.

A small remark regarding the various "studies" of the quality of the network, which seem to confirm something. All operators, without exception, publish such "research", sometimes it is done by "independent" players, but the results are always interpreted in favor of one or another operator. Think of them as a PR effort by operators, as they have opaque methods or conditions chosen so that a well-defined company wins. This is a product for asserting why such and such an operator's network is better than that of competitors.

Nature has bad weather

You may have heard the phrase "comb breathes." The point is that with an increase in load (the number of simultaneous speakers), the coverage area of ​​​​a 3G base station can decrease, up to the appearance of “holes” in the coverage where neighboring cells overlap each other a little. Closer to cell boundaries, 3G communications can be tolerable during periods of moderate load and deteriorate or even disappear during “peak” hours. Also, many people forget that the connection of the terminal (phone) with the base station is a kind of “last mile”, the conversation or data transfer traffic still needs to be delivered from the base station to the switch. In large cities, most base stations are now connected via fiber optic cable, in settlements less use of radio relay channels. Pulling fiber optics for tens of kilometers is expensive and unreliable; they still sometimes try to hand it over to a non-ferrous metal collection point. Everything was not bad, while the voice “walked” mainly in the networks, with the growth in data transmission volumes, the radio relays could no longer cope. They are being replaced with new ones with greater bandwidth, but this is an expensive and slow process, given the many thousands of stations that need such an upgrade.

The heading about the weather is not accidental, radio relay communication channels sharply lose their capacity during rain. It is difficult to deal with this, and in bad weather you can inadvertently be left without mobile Internet. Especially in places remote from relatively large settlements.

The seasonal factor also matters. In winter, everything can work fine, and Mobile Internet will “fly”, and on the May holidays and in the summer, with the advent of summer residents, everything gets really bad, and just sitting on a social network is happiness, not to mention online video. There may be an overload of a particular base station, or the radio relay communication channel may not be able to cope. An exact "diagnosis" can only be made by the operator himself. In order to sort out the problem and take action, you need to actively write and complain, it’s useless to count on “itself somehow corrected”. And again the notorious “economic feasibility”: will the costly modernization pay off? If voice communication works, then in principle there can be no official claims against the operator. And even if the voice communication stops working, then the “Contract” carefully states about the “probabilistic nature of the communication”, you won’t dig.

P.S. In the next article, we will focus on coverage cellular networks, signal quality on the street and in houses, let's talk about frequencies and wave penetration. Let's touch on the difference between operators in Russia and other countries, how their development strategies differ. For example, why 4G networks are developing so slowly in Europe and are qualitatively lagging behind Russian ones. We will be glad, as always, for your comments under this material.

The principle of initial data for the organization of interaction communication means that communication between interacting units (subdivisions) is organized by order of a higher headquarters.

For example, communication between interacting motorized rifle regiments is organized on the basis of a communication order from the division headquarters.

In the absence of instructions on the organization of communication of interaction or in case of its loss, the commanders (headquarters) of the interacting units (subunits) are obliged to immediately take all measures to establish communication between themselves.

The principle of responsibility for the organization of communications interaction

Responsibility for establishing and maintaining communication between interacting

units (subdivisions) are assigned to: for communication along the front - to the right neighbor;

for communications from the rear to the front - to the headquarters of a unit (subunit) located in the second echelon or reserve;

for communication between combined arms units and units of the branches of the Armed Forces and arms - to the headquarters of units of the branches of the Armed Forces and arms:

for communication between combined arms units and units (subdivisions) of special troops - to the headquarters of combined arms units.

For example, if two battalions are advancing in the first echelon of SMEs, the headquarters of the battalion advancing from the right is responsible for the communication of interaction between them. For communication with the battalion advancing in the first echelon and the battalion in reserve - the headquarters of the battalion in reserve. The headquarters of the anti-aircraft missile regiment is responsible for communication between the motorized rifle and anti-aircraft missile regiments, and the headquarters of the small regiment is responsible for communication between the motorized rifle regiment and the chemical defense company of the division.

The principle of responsibility for the allocation of funds for communications interaction.

The connection of interaction between units (subdivisions) but to the front and from the rear to the front is established:

radio and radio relay - by means of each of the interacting parts (subdivisions);

wired and mobile means - the means of the right neighbor and the means of the unit (subdivision) located in the second echelon (reserve).

The connection of interaction between units (subunits) acting towards each other is established by means of each of the interacting headquarters.

The principle of organizing communication between motorized rifle and tank units (subunits) with active artillery.

Communication of motorized rifle and tank units (subunits) with interacting artillery is established:

radio, radio relay and mobile means - by the forces and means of each:

by wire - means of artillery units (subdivisions).

For example, communication by wire between the KNP of a motorized rifle battalion and a supporting artillery battalion is established by means of an artillery battalion. Communication by radio means, in this case, is established by the means of each.

The principle of organization of communication of interaction with aviation means that communication between the Ground Forces and aviation is established through air controllers arriving at the command posts of units with their own means of communication.

For example, to communicate the interaction of a motorized rifle regiment with a support aviation unit, an aircraft controller (officer) arrives at the command post of the regiment with radio stations, with the help of which he directs aircraft (helicopters) at enemy ground targets.

There are other principles for organizing communications to ensure the interaction of troops. They determine the procedure for establishing communication between units of the Ground Forces with formations (units) of the Navy, border and internal troops. All these principles are set out in the Land Forces Communications Manual. We have examined the main principles of organizing communications for the interaction of troops.

Conclusion:

The considered means of communication, the procedure for their use, modes of operation, the principles of organization of communications, the commander of the communications unit and the head of communications are accepted for guidance when planning communications. They must continuously manage communications, carry out measures to increase the combat readiness of communications units (subunits), and ensure their comprehensive support, regardless of the conditions of the situation.

Question number 2. Kinds and types of communication

To implement the process of military communications in difficult conditions of a combat situation and real terrain, various types and types of troops are used (Figure 2.1)

MILITARY COMMUNICATIONS

KIND OF COMMUNICATION

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

radio communication

radio relay

tropospheric communication

satellite connection

wired communication

fiber optic communication signal communication

telephone communications

telegraph communication

facsimile

data transfer

video telephony

television connection

Rice. 2.1. Kinds and types of communication

The type of communication is a classification grouping of military communications, distinguished by the signal propagation medium and the type of linear means.

Radio communication- this is a kind of communication that is implemented using radio facilities, terrestrial and ionospheric radio waves. Radio communication is used in all levels of management. At the tactical command and control level, radio communications are the most important, and in many cases the only communications capable of providing command and control of units and subunits in the most difficult situation and when commanders (headquarters) are on the move.

radio relay- this is a kind of communication that is implemented using radio relay means of communication and radio waves in the ultrashort wave range. Radio relay communication is used in control links from the regiment and above.

Tropospheric communication- this is a kind of communication that is implemented using tropospheric means of communication and the physical phenomenon of long-range tropospheric propagation of ultrashort waves (VHF DTR). In terms of purpose, combat use and quality, tropospheric communications are similar to radio relay. Tropospheric communication is used in command and control levels from the division and above.

At present, there is a steady trend towards increasing the role of satellite communications in military communications systems.

Space communication is understood as radio communication in the interests of ground, air and sea-based correspondents, which has common sections of radio wave propagation outside the ionosphere. An example of a space communication line is shown in fig. 2.2

Rice. 2.2 Space link structure

Satellite connection- this is radio communication between two or more ground, air or sea-based correspondents, which is implemented using ground satellite communication stations and a repeater located on an artificial Earth satellite (AES). An example is shown in fig. 2.3

Rice. 2.3 The structure of the satellite communication line.

Modern military satellite communication stations provide communication at distances of 5000 km or more. In the military communications system satellite connection finds application in the link from the battalion and above, as well as for communication with reconnaissance groups and special detachments (divisions).

Wired- this is communication carried out via wired (cable) communication lines. In wired communication systems, an electrical signal is transmitted through a cable line. Wired communication means provide high quality channels, ease of organizing communication, relatively greater secrecy compared to radio communication, and are almost not affected by deliberate interference. Wired communication is used in all levels of command (from a platoon (company) and above).

Fiber optic communication- this is a connection carried out over a fiber-optic cable using special equipment for converting electrical signals into optical ones.

signal communication- this is communication carried out using predetermined visual and sound control signals. At present, visual means (light rockets, colored smoke, etc.) and sound means (sirens, whistles, etc.) are used to control the battle.

All types of communications are implemented by specific means of communication: radio stations, radio relay and tropospheric stations, satellite communication stations, wired communications, fiber-optic communications. These means form communication channels: radio, radio relay, tropospheric, etc. For the channel-forming means of each type of military communication, symbols have been established that are used in the development of communication documents. Conventions shown in fig. 2.4.

Rice. 2.4 Symbols of communication means of various kinds

Information of the same content can be represented by messages of various types: text, data, image or speech. So, for example, a combat mission to a unit can be set in the form of a text document on a telegraph form or on a display screen, in the form of appropriate symbols on a topographic map, or communicated to the unit commander in speech form. Depending on the method of presenting messages in a form convenient for perception, there are types of communication.

Type of military connection- this is a classification grouping of military communications, distinguished by the type of message being transmitted (terminal equipment or means of communication). When using the appropriate terminal equipment via radio, radio relay, tropospheric, satellite, wire (cable) communication lines, the following types of communication are provided (Fig. 2.1): telephone, telegraph, facsimile, data transmission, video telephone, television.

Telegraph communication, data transmission and facsimile communication are usually united by the concept of "documentary communication". The communication documents use conventional graphic symbols for types of communication (Fig. 2.5).

Rice. 2.5 Symbols of types of communication.

Telephone communications- this is a type of telecommunication that provides the transmission (reception) of speech information, negotiations of officials of government bodies. Telephone communication creates conditions close to personal communication, therefore it is the most convenient at the tactical level of command, but retains its importance at other levels of command. In order to hide from the enemy the content of telephone conversations in communication channels, cipher communications equipment (SHAS) or technical speech masking devices are used. Depending on the used terminal and special equipment telephone communications May be unclassified, masked, secret temporary or guaranteed durability.

Telegraph communication- a type of telecommunication that provides the exchange of telegrams (short text messages) and negotiations to officials of government bodies using telegraph communications. In addition, it is intended for the transmission of documentary messages in the form of ciphergrams, codograms.

Telegraph communication can be direct-printing or auditory, classified or open (with or without the use of SHAS). Telegrams carrying important information can be pre-encrypted or encoded.

Fax- This is a type of telecommunication that provides the exchange of documentary information in color and black and white. It is intended for the transfer of documents in the form of maps, diagrams, drawings, drawings and alphanumeric texts in black and white or color. This connection provides great convenience to officials of the governing bodies, since the receiving device receives a document ready for further work with the appropriate signatures and seals. Fax communication can be open or secret (with or without the use of SHAS).

Fax communication is used in the operational and strategic levels of management.

Data transfer- this is a type of telecommunication that provides the exchange of formalized and non-formalized messages between electronic computing systems, automated workplaces of officials of control points. It is intended for the exchange of information in automated command and control systems for troops and weapons (ACS). Under data information is understood to be presented in a form suitable for automatic processing.

Video telephony- this is a type of telecommunication that provides negotiations of officials of government bodies with the simultaneous transmission of moving images. This type communication is used only in the highest levels of management.

TV connection- This is a type of telecommunication that provides the transmission of a combat situation and other events on the ground in real time. It is used at the highest levels of management.

Taking into account the specifics of the organization and solution of specific tasks of command and control, the following types of communication are used in various levels of command and control of troops and weapons:

in the link battalion - company - platoon - squad - telephone;

in the link regiment - battalion - telephone communication, and when managing air defense and intelligence units - data transfer;

in the link division - regiment - telephone communication, data transmission, facsimile and telegraph auditory communication;

in the division link and above - all the above types of communications.

Such assignment of communication types to control links is not final. With the introduction of automated control complexes and weapon control systems into the lower levels of command, data transmission, facsimile and even videotelephone communication will be more widely used in them.

Conclusion:

So currently there is:

types of communication - radio communication, radio relay communication, tropospheric communication, satellite communication, wire communication, signal communication.

Types of communication - telephone, telegraph, facsimile data transmission, video telephone, television.

Question #3. Ways of organizing communication by radio, radio-relay, wire and mobile means.

The organization of communications is the activity of communications officials, covering the issues of training and combat use of signal troops, including planning, setting tasks for signal troops and directing them in the process of deploying, functioning and curtailing a communications system.

The method of organizing communications is understood as the procedure and methods for using the forces and means of military communications to solve the tasks set for providing subscribers (correspondents) with communications.

Ways to organize communication by radio.

Radio communication in the TZU is the most important, and in many cases the only communication capable of providing control of units and subunits in the most difficult situation and when commanders (headquarters) are on the move.

Radio communication as a type of communication has a number of advantages and disadvantages.

The advantages of radio communications include:

the possibility of establishing radio communication with objects whose location is not known; through impassable and contaminated areas;

the possibility of establishing radio communication with objects in motion on the ground, in the air and at sea;

the possibility of transmitting combat orders, instructions, reports and signals to a large number of correspondents.

The disadvantages include:

the possibility of intercepting conversations and transmissions;

the possibility of the enemy determining the locations of operating radio stations and creating deliberate interference by them;

dependence of the communication state on the conditions for the passage of radio waves and possible interference during joint work;

strong influence on communication of high-altitude nuclear explosions;

reducing the communication distance between radio stations operating on the move.

Types of radio transmission

Radio communication between two or more radio stations can be two-way or one-way. With two-way radio communication, work between radio stations is carried out both for reception and for transmission. With one-way radio communication, one or more radio stations (transmitters) work only for transmission, and the rest - only for reception.

By the nature of the exchange, radio communication can be simplex single-frequency, simplex two-frequency and duplex.

With simplex single-frequency radio communication, radio stations working with each other transmit and receive alternately at the same frequency.

With simplex two-frequency radio communication, transmission and reception are also carried out alternately at separated reception and transmission frequencies. In this case, the receiving station has the opportunity to interrupt the work of the transmitting one, without waiting for it to complete the transmission.

With duplex radio communication, radio stations working with each other transmit and receive simultaneously at separated receive and transmit frequencies.

Ways of organizing radio communication.

The methods of organizing radio communication are: radio direction and radio network. The use of this or that method or its variety in each individual case depends on the specific conditions of the situation, the purpose of this connection, the degree of its importance, the specifics of the combat operations of this type of troops, the nature and characteristics of the organization of command and control, the need for information exchange, the need for masking from enemy radio reconnaissance and protection from its radio interference, the presence of radio facilities and other factors.

Radio direction is a way of organizing radio communication between two control points (commanders, headquarters). A graphic representation of the method of organizing radio communication in the direction is shown in Fig. 3.1.

The figure shows: dotted line - control points; a flag and a conventional sign - belonging to control points; conventional signs of radio stations; direct link between radios indicates which radios are connected. An inscription is applied above the line with the number and name of the radio direction (in the interests of which commander, headquarters it is organized).

The advantages of this method of organizing radio communication include:

speed and ease of establishing communication;

increase in the number of transmitted messages during the exchange of information;

increasing reconnaissance protection from enemy reconnaissance equipment, especially when using linear call signs;

increasing the communication range when using directional antennas.

The main disadvantage of this method is the increased consumption of radio communications at the control point, from which radio communications are organized.

This method of organizing radio communication is used in practice to transmit a large number of messages in particularly important information directions. An example is the radio directions of the division headquarters or the radio directions with reconnaissance groups.

A radio network is a way of organizing radio communications between three or more control points (commanders, headquarters).

In Figure 3.2. depicts a radio network operating at one frequency, organized from the communication centers of the command post of the regiment with the communication centers of the KNP of three battalions.

Advantages:

The possibility of broadcasting and maintaining communication between all correspondents of the network;

Less expenditure of manpower and resources.

Flaws:

less stability, throughput and stealth;

Higher establishment time and complexity of communication.

It should be noted that the organization of communication in radio networks is much more difficult than the organization of communication in radio directions. This is due to the fact that the network includes 4-6, and sometimes more radio stations. Correspondents of the radio network are determined in each individual case during its planning. A large number of correspondents in a radio network requires a high discipline of communication. In such radio networks, short commands, orders, reports and signals are predominantly transmitted.

The stability of the functioning of radio networks with a large number of correspondents is low. Examples of such radio networks are radio networks in tank and aviation units, some interaction radio networks, and warning radio networks.

In practice, communication over a radio network, as a rule, is organized:

for transmitting signals, commands, alerts to a large number of correspondents;

to exchange information with less important correspondents with its small volume and low requirements for the timeliness of transmission;

with a lack of radio facilities or to increase stability in addition to radio directions.

In the most important radio networks, the number of correspondents is not more than 6. As well as radio directions, radio networks can be permanent, on duty, reserve and hidden.

Permanent radio networks (radio directions) are those in which the operation of radio stations for transmission is carried out without restrictions.

On-duty radio networks (radio directions) are those in which the senior control center immediately receives messages from subordinate subunits and units.

Reserved are such radio networks (radio directions) in which it is opened by an additional command if it is impossible to exchange messages in the main radio networks (radio directions).

Hidden radio networks (radio directions) are organized to communicate with the most important correspondents and are used to transmit the most important and urgent orders, reports, commands and signals. Work on transmission in hidden radio networks is opened only with the permission of the head of communications of the division. When opening work in hidden radio networks, requests for audibility are not made, and transmission is carried out by short radiograms and signals without prior calling and receiving confirmation of reception.

Depending on the purpose, as well as on the availability of forces, means and frequencies, communication in the radio network can be provided on:

one frequency;

two frequencies;

transmitter frequencies;

standby reception frequencies;

one calling and several working frequencies.

If a group of frequencies is assigned for the operation of a radio network, then this radio network is called a subscriber network.

The method of assigning operating frequencies significantly affects the nature of the operation of the radio link and its capabilities.

One frequency reception and transmission is assigned to radio networks (radio directions) in which maximum simplicity and efficiency of communication is required (Figure 3.3.).

D
For the organization of such radio links, a minimum consumption of frequencies is required, and a large number of correspondents can work in radio networks. However, with this method of assigning operating frequencies, the ability to protect against interference and the safety of radio communications is reduced, the use of data from the frequency dispatch service (FDS) is difficult, and the bandwidth of the radio link is reduced.

In this case, two correspondents can simultaneously work with each other in the radio network, or circular work (transmission) can be carried out. Since the conversations between two correspondents of the network are heard by everyone else, mutual information is provided between them. To organize radio communication over a radio network at one frequency, the minimum number of frequencies and radio facilities is consumed.

When assigned to a radio network two frequencies one of them is assigned to the transmitter of the main station, the other - to the correspondents' transmitters. This method of organizing radio communications can only be provided if the main radio station and correspondents have a separate transmitter and receiver. In such a network, duplex operation is carried out, and, consequently, stealth, noise immunity and throughput are increased.

TO
As a disadvantage, there is a large consumption of private resources. Modern radio stations can operate in a radio network on two frequencies in two-part simplex or half-duplex modes. The scheme of the radio network at two frequencies, different for transmission and reception, is shown in Fig. 3.4.

A radio network at transmitter frequencies is used for two-way communication simultaneously between all or several radio stations of the network without restructuring transmitters and receivers, as well as for providing broadcast transmissions by any radio station of the network to everyone else. With this method of assigning frequencies, an increase in the safety and security of radio communications from deliberate interference, the throughput of radio links, and the speed of establishing and maintaining radio communications is also achieved. The disadvantage remains the same - a large consumption of a private resource and an increased consumption of receivers and personnel, therefore this method has not found wide application in the organization of tactical radio communications.

In such a radio network, each radio station transmits on the frequency of its transmitter, and receives on the frequency of the correspondents' transmitters. The radio network diagram is shown in fig. 3.5.

A kind of radio network at transmitter frequencies is the so-called combined radio network. In a combined radio network, two-way communication of correspondents is provided only with the main radio station of the network. All network stations have the ability to conduct continuous transmission: the main station - to any of the correspondents, and the network correspondents - for the main station. The scheme of the combined radio network in fig. 3.6.

The method of assigning standby reception frequencies for each radio station of a radio network is used to ensure communication between correspondents during a short-term exchange and if it is impossible to assign optimal frequencies to the network for communication between all correspondents. To ensure radio communication over the radio network at standby reception frequencies, each correspondent of the radio network is assigned one or more reception frequencies, call signs are assigned, and a password protection procedure is established. Usually, this method frequency assignment is used for radio networks between control centers that are located over long distances and located in different time zones.

To establish radio network communication at standby frequencies, the transmitter is tuned to the reception frequency of the required correspondent.

The call is made after preliminary listening to the reception frequency of the radio station that called the correspondent (Fig. 4.7).

This method of organizing radio communications allows you to increase the security of communications, the protection of radio communications from deliberate interference. EFFECT: convenience of organization of radio communication through an instance is provided.

However, in radio networks at standby reception frequencies, the possibility of conducting circular transmissions is excluded, the consumption of communication frequencies increases; each time a connection is established with other correspondents, it is necessary to rebuild the transmitters of the main station, which reduces the efficiency of radio communications.

One calling and several operating frequencies are assigned to radio networks in which a long exchange of messages is carried out between correspondents. In such a radio network, as shown in Figure 3.8, on the calling frequency,

V
calling and transmitting only short commands (signals) of combat control. To conduct a long radio exchange, the main radio station on the calling frequency transmits a call to the correspondent and a signal to switch to one of the operating frequencies. Messages are exchanged on this frequency.

When using a radio station equipped with special frequency adaptation devices, radio communication between them can be organized by subscriber radio network(Figure 3.9.).

For the operation of a subscriber radio network, a group of frequencies is assigned that are equally accessible to any correspondent of this network. The radio receivers of all correspondents of the network are automatically tuned in turn to each of the frequencies, i.e. scan reception is provided. In this case, the reception quality is evaluated at each frequency, i.e. frequencies are ranked for each radio station.

To ensure communication between two radio stations, the calling correspondent sends a call with the address of the correspondent on a free and best frequency for himself from the frequency groups. The receiving device of the called correspondent controls all the frequencies assigned for communication in the subscriber network and, upon receiving a call on one of them, reconfigures its transceiver to this frequency. Communication between two correspondents is carried out on the same frequency in the radio direction.

Several radio directions (pairs of correspondents of the subscriber radio network) can work simultaneously, while maintaining the ability for the main radio station to conduct broadcasts and priority calls to any radio station in the network. The total number of such radio directions may be equal to the number of frequencies in the group assigned for the operation of the subscriber radio network.

With a limited number of radio facilities, radio frequencies and time to develop radio data, radio communication can be provided the method of walking the radio station into the existing radio networks.

To ensure that the radio station of the senior commander (headquarters) enters the radio network of subordinate commanders (headquarters), a permanent call sign is assigned to the senior commander (headquarters). This callsign fits into the radio data table of the radio networks of all subordinate units and units. Radio operators of radio networks, having heard the permanent call sign of the senior commander, are obliged to immediately stop working in the radio network and answer the radio operator with this call sign.

This method of entering the radio network most fully meets the requirements of radio masking and does not cause difficulties in organizing and providing communications. At the same time, the call signs of the commanders (commanders) must be remembered by the signalmen of all radio networks of subordinate subunits and units.

In modern combined-arms combat, an important place is occupied by the organization of interaction and, consequently, the organization and provision of radio communications for interaction. Interoperability radio communication organized in three ways:

organization of special radio networks for interaction;

by mutual entry of radio stations into other radio networks;

through operational groups arriving with their radio communication equipment at communication centers of command posts of interacting units and subunits.

Thus, radio communication is a mobile type of communication that ensures the transmission of information without retransmission and retransmission over unlimited distances with minimal effort, money and time to establish it.

Ways of organizing communication by radio relay means.

Radio relay means provide high-quality multi-channel communication, which practically does not depend much on the time of year and day, weather conditions and atmospheric interference.

The advantages of radio relay communication include:

high channel quality;

high reconnaissance.

The disadvantages are:

the dependence of its quality on the terrain, which makes it necessary to carefully select the route of the communication line;

inability to work or a significant reduction in the range of radio relay stations in motion;

the possibility of intercepting transmissions and creating radio interference by the enemy when working on a non-directional antenna;

the bulkiness of the antenna-mast devices, hence the long time of their deployment (bringing into working condition).

Radio relay communication is carried out between terminal stations directly or through intermediate (relay) radio relay stations. These stations are deployed in cases where communication directly between terminal stations is not provided due to their considerable distance from each other or due to terrain conditions, as well as when it is necessary to allocate channels at an intermediate point.

Radio relay communication can be organized along the direction, along the network and along the axis. The application of this or that method in each individual case depends on the specific conditions of the situation, the characteristics of the organization of management, the terrain, the importance of this connection, the need for exchange, the availability of funds and other factors.

The direction of radio relay communication is a way of organizing communication between two control points (commanders, headquarters) (Fig. 3.10)

Advantages:

higher stability and secrecy of communication;

higher throughput;

speed and ease of establishing communication;

high mobility.

Flaws:

increased expenditure of forces and means, as well as frequencies and call signs;

the difficulty of providing EMC at communication nodes with a large number of RRS;

inability to maneuver communication channels, low efficiency of their use.

Radio relay network - a method of organizing communication, in which the connection of the senior control point (commanders, headquarters) with several subordinates is carried out using one radio relay set.

At the same time, the PPC receivers of the subordinate correspondents are constantly tuned to the frequency of the master station's transmitter. The number of correspondents should not exceed three or four. Such communication is possible mainly when the main station works on an omnidirectional (whip) antenna, or an antenna with a large directivity angle (60 - 70 degrees). Slave correspondents can use both omnidirectional and directional antennas.

Network advantages:

Less consumption of manpower and resources, as well as frequencies and call signs;

Reducing the number of RPCs at communication nodes, which means ease of providing EMC;

Possibility of broadcasting messages;

Ability to work on the move (on whip antennas).

Flaws:

Shorter communication range, stability, throughput and stealth;

Inability to maneuver communication channels, low efficiency of their use.

Radio relay axis - a method of organizing radio relay communication, in which the communication of a senior command post (commanders, headquarters) with several subordinates is carried out via one radio relay line deployed in the direction of movement of its command post or one of the command posts of subordinate headquarters.

The connection of the control center of the senior headquarters with the control points of subordinates is carried out through the reference (auxiliary) communication centers (nodal stations), at which channels are distributed between the control points.

Advantages of the axis:

Ability to maneuver communication channels and ensure their more efficient use;

Less consumption of frequencies and call signs;

Reducing the number of RPCs at the communication center of the senior headquarters, which means ease of providing EMC;

Flaws:

The dependence of all radio relay communications on the operation of the center line, and, consequently, less stability and mobility;

Higher duration of establishment and complexity of communication;

The need for additional channel switching at the OUS (VUS).

Ways of organizing communication by wire means.

Wired communication means provide high quality channels, ease of negotiation and transmission, ease of organizing communication, relatively greater secrecy compared to radio and radio relay means, and are almost not affected by deliberate interference.

When organizing a wired connection, it is necessary to consider:

The impossibility of providing communication on the move;

Greater vulnerability of cable lines from the impact of conventional weapons and WTO, air strikes, enemy artillery fire, from the action of tanks, armored personnel carriers and vehicles;

The complexity of laying and removing lines in contaminated and difficult terrain, the bulkiness of the material part, the relatively low speed of laying and removing communication lines;

The need for a large number of forces and means for the transportation, laying, maintenance and protection of communication lines.

Wire communication, depending on the conditions of the situation and the availability of forces and means, can be organized along directions or along an axis.

The direction of wire communication is a way of organizing communication between two control points (commanders, headquarters).

Rice. 3.13. Organization of wired communication in the direction

Wired communication, organized in directions, in comparison with communication along the axis, gives greater stability to the entire communication system, because. if any one line is damaged, communication is disrupted with only one of the control points. In addition, this way of organizing wired communication usually provides a large throughput of the entire communication system.

However, the organization of communication by wire means in directions slows down the establishment of communication, requires an increased expenditure of forces and means, and excludes maneuvering by communication channels between directions.

Axis of wire communication - a method of organizing communication, in which the connection of the senior control point (commander, headquarters) with several subordinate control points (commanders, headquarters) is carried out via one wire line laid in the direction of movement of its control point or one of the control points of subordinate formations ( parts).

On the axis of wire communication, support (auxiliary) communication nodes are usually equipped, from which lines of attachment are laid to the control centers of the senior headquarters and subordinate formations (units, subunits).

Rice. 3.14 Organization of wire communication along the axis

Compared to directional communication, axial wire communication provides significant savings in the forces and means of communication, provides faster communication and allows for maneuvering by channels.

The disadvantage of this method is the dependence of communication with several control points on the state of the center line. The throughput of an axle depends on the capacitance of the axle line.

When laying a communication line, terrain folds, trenches, communication passages are used to protect them from damage, and on the approaches to communication centers and at intersections with traffic and tank routes, showers are buried in the ground or placed in ditches.

Internet intelligence [Guide to action] Yevgeny Leonidovich Yushchuk

How is customer feedback organized?

This part of the site can show in which areas the company feels most confident, how its work with clients is conceptually organized and what certain aspects of their interaction are based on.

In addition to traditional sections like "Leave your feedback", online consultations are becoming increasingly popular, which are being adopted by companies operating in a wide variety of industries.

For example, there is an online consultation on the Autoland website. There is also a form for contacting the company's quality control department on the site, which helps customers who are dissatisfied with the quality of service to solve problems that arise.

The forums posted on the websites of organizations are quite indicative. From just a list of their headlines, you can see what problems visitors currently worry about, and which were relevant in the past, and how well the questions that participants pose to the company are resolved. However, representative information on the forums can only be considered when they have a sufficiently large number of visitors, and the information must be regularly updated.

So, for example, on the website of the Autoland company, it can be seen that visitors prefer online consultation, because fresh announcements on the forum rarely appear, respectively, and they are not actively discussed. This is not surprising, since the online consultation on the Autoland website, where both questions and answers are published openly, competes directly with the forum, while having a psychological advantage in the eyes of consumers as a more formal form of communication.

But, say, the forum of MTS subscribers in Yekaterinburg, on the contrary, quite well reflects the moods and problems of the clients of this mobile operator (online requests to MTS, in principle, also exist, but they represent email correspondence, which is not available to anyone except the subscriber who asked the question and the company specialist who answers this question).

For comparison: as of April 30, 2006, maximum amount messages in one section on the Autoland forum - 143, and on the forum of the Yekaterinburg branch of MTS - 6051. At the same time, the maximum number of views of one topic on the Autoland forum is 1147, and on the forum of the MTS branch in question - 22,937.

Since we are talking about forums, a few words must be said separately about external forums, which are popular on the portals of large cities and which are often attended by customers of enterprises from regional settlements.

Recent studies conducted on various forums of Russian city portals have shown that the assessments given to companies in such forums should be taken with caution by a competitive intelligence specialist. Let's clarify that we are talking about the assessments of specific companies, and not about products that can also be discussed on forums.

It turned out that the tone at citywide forums is often set by a very small group of people - sometimes no more than four or five people, who, out of personal dislike or for some other reason, can give out exclusively negative or only positive information about a particular company. Acting as a well-coordinated team, such a group is able to effectively suppress dissent on the forum. As a result, an opinion can be formed about the activities of specific enterprises that has little in common with reality. At the same time, topics “rocked” by such a team can reach 10–15 pages in volume and contain several hundred messages. If the messages in such topics are analyzed from the point of view of semantic and emotional load, then approximately 70–90% represent a meaningless “flood” - simple communication between visitors to each other, which is not related to the topic under discussion (“communication for the sake of communication”). Moreover, such sayings are often accompanied by a large number of "emoticons". The rest of the statements depend on the mood of the “leading team”, and not on the real state of affairs.

The main way to distort reality at such city-wide forums is to suppress facts that do not confirm the point of view of the “leading team” while simultaneously pedaling facts that coincide with the “general line” of the forum’s activists. Combined with the suppression of those who dare to speak out against it, even if they make true arguments, this tactic is paying off. Frank insinuations are relatively rare on the forums, although we have seen such examples.

If the forum is nevertheless of interest to a competitive intelligence specialist as a source of information and it is necessary to understand how the facts presented on the forum correspond to reality, we recommend using the search built into each forum to look at the history of statements of those people whose opinion the specialist intends to base his conclusions on. Such a study allows us to draw a fairly accurate conclusion about how competent and objective this or that person is in a particular issue.

In addition to forums and online consultations, information about the quality of customer service can usually be gleaned from sections such as " Guest book” or “Book of complaints and suggestions”.

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